tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-110217412024-03-12T22:49:25.379-07:00UGC/NET Preparation HISTORYA Teacher's Blog for helping to prepare for UGC/NET JRF and Lecturer Eligibility Test conducted by University Grant Commission of India twice Every Year.
A Complete Free Course and Discussion AreaSumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.comBlogger31125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-72418853214507154132018-06-04T18:12:00.002-07:002018-06-04T18:12:28.819-07:00History of Constitution of India: Charter Acts and Company Rule in India 1773-1858<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://www.amazon.in/History-Constitution-India-Charter-Company-ebook/dp/B07DFR9KD3/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=sumirhistory-21&linkId=07740761a46886b05be0af45cab5536f" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-in.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B07DFR9KD3&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=IN&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=sumirhistory-21" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-in.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=sumirhistory-21&l=li2&o=31&a=B07DFR9KD3" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" />
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<span style="background-color: yellow; color: red; font-size: large;">The book is free to download until 8 June 2018.</span><br />
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The book is written by Sumir Sharma to fulfil the requirements of the students of the Post Graduate course in History of Punjab University. It meets the need of the Paper HIS 213: Constitutional Development in Modern India 1773 – 1947 Unit I and Paper HIS 211: Modern India Political Process, Unit III.</div>
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The content of the book is also relevant to the students of Indian Polity and Indian Constitution pursuing the course of Post Graduate in Political Science. It is also suitable for the students of Law course.</div>
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The content of the book is equally relevant to General Studies Main paper II. The content provides material for the first section which reads, “Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution …”</div>
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The book is also relevant for undergraduate classes honours course.</div>
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It has eight chapters and two Appendix. They are as follows.</div>
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Chapter 1: The Brief History of the East India Company.</div>
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Chapter 2: The Regulating Act, 1773</div>
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Chapter 3: Pitt’s India Act, 1784</div>
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Chapter 4: Charter Act, 1793</div>
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Chapter 5: Charter Act, 1813</div>
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Chapter 6: Charter Act, 1833</div>
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Chapter 7: Charter Act, 1853</div>
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Chapter 8: Act of Better Government of India 1858</div>
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There are two Appendix. In Appendix I, there is an essay on the sources which are used for writing the contents of this book. In Appendix II, the suggestions are provided to make the book more interactive.</div>
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The book is developed as a textbook. It is written in a narrative style. On every topic, the content is written in point format. For the point format, it is meant that every paragraph explains its main heading. The paragraph is given a title or a number. It helps in writing the answers in the examination. The purpose is that the readers and the students can quickly develop an answer to any question on the topics explained in the book.</div>
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The book explains the Charter Acts as the historical background of the History of the Constitution of India. It is evident that my next volume will be on the legislation during the Crown rule in India. I will soon publish the relevant next volume. I am presently working on that volume.</div>
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To make this book interactive, I am going to reproduce some of part of this book on my blog at undergraduatehistory.blogspot.in. I will attend to their queries related to the content of the book. I am ready to provide pdf copies of individual chapters to any reader free of cost who may require it for printing purpose. The relevant instructions are given in Appendix II.</div>
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<u>I will also write the Hindi version of this volume and release it in June 2018. The free download of that book will also be made available for five days. Keep in touch. To remain updated, subscribe to this blog. Check for subscription in the sidebar.</u></div>
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Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-11115527039075205602010-10-27T05:14:00.001-07:002010-10-27T05:14:40.031-07:00SaptangaSaptanaga:<br />
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<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">Saptanga means seven elements of State, a theory of state as given by Kautilya and Valluvar. The seven elements are Swami, Amatya, Janapada, Durga, Kosa, Danda and Mitra. </div><div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;"><br />
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</div><div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;"></div><hr /><hr /> <div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">Reference: R. S. Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institution in Ancient India, pp. 31, Chapter III. </div><br />
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<hr /><hr />Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-87931667479622993682010-04-16T07:14:00.000-07:002010-04-16T07:14:16.874-07:00Time Line Approach: Planning for Preparation<hr /><hr /><div style="text-align: justify;">It is merely a view and an advice.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">I believe those who prepare for history as an option in Civil Services or UGC/NET or any course in history, they must develop an approach of first raising a time line of period of their study in their mind. It should be developed on political history contents. After, a person is able to remember a time line of political events, then he/she may move towards social and economic developments over that period.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Whenever I teach Gandhi Era, I begin with Gandhi's political activities in 1917 which I generally call Shukla Indigo Champaran, Land Revenue Kheda, Mill Workers Bonus Ahemdabad. From there onwards, I continue to recollect the main political events associated with or around Gandhian activities upto 1948. I then impress upon my students to develop similar memory recall survey of the period.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">I had desired to write a post in depth demonstrating what I have said in the above post. Fortunately, I have come across a post on Wikipedia which serves the same purpose. The list as given in there for each year is not all that exhaustive. In case of some of the entries even I do not have the information earlier. But I must recommend here that the aspirants for Civil Services and UGC/NET must go through that list. It may also help in revising their notes also and check how far they are able to recollect on events, personalities and concepts in chronological order.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;">The Post can be accessed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Years_of_the_20th_century_in_India" target="_blank">HERE</a>.</div><hr /><hr />Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-90534294700995090742009-08-11T19:07:00.000-07:002009-08-11T19:08:20.350-07:00Define CasteThe Sociologists define a caste as follows: <br />A caste is a hereditary, endogamous, usually localized group, having a traditional association with an occupation and a particular position in the local hierarchy of castes. The relations between castes are governed, among other things, by the concepts of pollution and purity, and generally, maximum commensality occurs within the caste. <br /><br />On spatial level, a caste is usually segmented into several sub-castes and each sub-caste is endogamous. This segmentation is probably the result of a long historical process in which groups continually fissioned off. As a result of this long process of development there has come into existence several cognate groups usually found scattered over a limited geographical region, each of which retains a sense of identity as well as its linkage with other similar groups. Hence, a perception that a caste has its limited social boundaries is limited view meant for a particular time and place only. It, under historic impact, keeps changing the social boundaries and even the spatial spread through the process of historic fission. <br /><hr> Source: <br />Srinivas M. N., Caste in Modern India and other essays, 1962, Media Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Bombay, pp 2,3. Chapter 1, Introduction. <br /><hr><hr>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-41086127594309917822009-08-11T10:28:00.001-07:002009-08-11T10:28:44.913-07:00Sanskritization"The caste system is far from a rigid system in which the position of each component caste is fixed for all time. Movement has always been possible, and especially so in the middle regions of the hierarchy. A low caste was able, in a generation or two, to rise to a higher position in the hierarchy by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism, and by Sanskritizing its ritual and pantheon. In short, it took over, as far as possible, the customs, rites, and beliefs of the Brahmins, and the adoption of the Brahminic way of life by a low caste seems to have been frequent, though theoretically forbidden. This process has been called -'Sanskritization'.”<br /><br /><br /><hr> Source: <br />Srinivas M. N., Caste in Modern India and other essays, 1962,Media Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Bombay, pp 42. Chapter 2, A Note on Sanskritization and Westernization. Quoted by M. N. Srinivas from 'Religions and Society among the Coorgs of South India, Oxford, 1952, p.32.<br /><hr><hr>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-73711830557608340632009-01-26T07:54:00.000-08:002015-05-27T21:47:49.188-07:00Shadhdarshana or Six Doctrines of Hinduism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The Shadhdarshana means the six Doctrines or the Six systems of Salvation or the Six Schools of Philosophies of Hinduism. They are as follows.<br />
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<tr><td>Sr. no</td><td>Name of the Doctrine</td><td><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: cyan;">Name of the Rishi/Apostle</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td>1</td><td>Nayaya:Analysis</td><td><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: cyan;">Akshapada Gautama</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td>2</td><td>Vaisheshika: Doctrine of Individual Charateristics</td><td><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: cyan;">Uluka Kanada</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td>3</td><td>Sankhya: The Count</td><td><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: cyan;">Kapila</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td>4</td><td>Yoga: Now Most popular in West as a school of physical disciplining</td><td><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: cyan;">Patanjali</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td>5</td><td>Mimansa: Enquiry</td><td><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: cyan;">Jamini</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td>6</td><td>Vedanta, also Uttara Mimansa</td><td><span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: cyan;">Shankaracharya</span></span></td></tr>
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Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-25686270269412799932009-01-26T07:53:00.000-08:002015-05-27T21:50:14.399-07:00Dus Avtaras of Vishnu<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The Dus Avataras of Vishnu means the ten incarnations of Vishnus as per Hindu religion mythology. They are given below<br />
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<tr><td>Sr. no. </td><td>Hindi Name</td><td>Probable English Term</td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">1</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Matsya</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">The Fish</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">2</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Kurma</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">The Tortoise</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">3</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Varaha</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">The Boar</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">4</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Narasimha</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">The Man Lion</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">5</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Vaman</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">The Dwarf</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">6</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Parasurama</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">Rama with the Axe</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">7</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Rama</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">Raghukul Prince Rama of Ayodhya</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">8</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Krishna</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">King Krishna of Dwarka of Vrishni Tribe</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">9</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Budha</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">Prince Sidhardha</span></span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="background-color: blue;">10</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;">Kalkin</span></td><td><span style="background-color: blue;"><span style="color: white;">In incarnation yet to come</span></span></td></tr>
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Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-71095165708856641182009-01-24T19:15:00.000-08:002009-01-24T19:17:13.266-08:00Vedangas<hr /><hr /><br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Vedangas are treatises which form the part of Vedic literature. They are six. The etymological meaning of Vedanga means limbs of Vedas. It suggests that they are helpful in understanding the Vedas. It is written by an established scholar that ‘the study of Vedanga was necessary either for the reading, the understanding, or the proper sacrificial employment of the Veda.’ Hence, these six limbs or the six treatise or the six subjects are necessary for fully understanding the Vedas which are Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sam Veda and Atharva Veda.<br /><br /><br />Further, R. C. Majumdar, specifically emphasis that they should not be taken as mere six books but the six subjects which are to be understood to appreciate the contents of the Vedas. It should be further remembered that they are treatises. It means that they are work of the intellect and memory of human beings. They are product of the use of human faculties.<br /><br /><br />These six treatises are:<br /></div><ol style="text-align: justify;"><li><p>Sikhsha (pronunciation) </li><li>Chhandas (metre)</li><li>Vyakarana (grammar)</li><li>Nirukta (explanation of words; etymology)</li><li>Jyotisha (astronomy {Kindly note, not the astrology as it is generally believed. That is other thing, that it is latter used for astrology far more than for executing Vedic ceremonies.})</li><li>Kalpa (ceremonial). </p></li></ol><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><br />R. C. Majumdar has emphasised that<br /><blockquote>the first two are considered necessary for reading the Veda, the two next for understanding it, and the last two for employing it at sacrifices.</blockquote><br /><br /><br />Therefore, it means that Sikhsha and Chhandas, that are metre and grammar are used for reading the Veda. They are used merely for reading. The Vyakrana and Nirukta, that are grammar and etymology, are used for understanding the Vedas. Finally, Jyotisha and Kalpa, that are astronomy and ceremonial involve the operational aspect, action aspect, the activity aspect of the Vedas.<br /><br /><br /><hr /><hr /><br />Source Used: Majumdar, R. C., ‘Ancient History’.<br /><hr /><hr /><br />External Links:<br /><hr /><hr /><br />Status: Subject to change<br /><hr /><hr /> Further reading:<br /><hr /><hr /> It is related to:<br /><hr /><hr /> It has relevance to:<br /><hr /><hr /><br /><br /><br /></div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-63612308256615465602008-09-29T10:58:00.000-07:002008-09-29T11:04:31.619-07:00REVISED FORMAT OF PAPER-III OF UGC-NET<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);font-size:180%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">This Format, as given below, is applicable from June 2008. The instruction of the style of paper as given before the syllabus given on the site of the UGC stands superseded by the following instructions. It is given in good faith and carry the meaning which is best near to the written words. The reader here is still advised to access the UGC website itself for self verification. </span></span><br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: justify;">The University Grants Commission has restructured the format of Paper-III for all forthcoming NET examinations. The syllabi of all subjects, however, remain unchanged. Paper-III now consists of four Sections, in all containing 26 questions for the candidates to attempt.<br /></div><br /><br /><div style="text-align: justify; font-family: courier new; color: rgb(255, 102, 0);"><span style="font-size:180%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">NOTE: The instructions regarding Paper-III in the note given at the beginning of syllabus for each subject should be ignored as they have now become infructuous.</span><br /></span></div><hr /><br />Section I: It requires the candidates to write a critique of a given passage or<br />stanza from a known thinker/writer. Five carefully considered specific<br />questions are to be asked on the given passage, requiring an answer in<br />upto 30 words. It shall carry 5 X 5 = 25 marks. In the case of science<br />subjects, a theoretical problem will be set for the candidates to<br />analyse. Five questions will be asked thereon. Questions in this section<br />shall be numbered as 1 – 5.<br /><hr /><br />Section II: Fifteen questions will be asked across the syllabus for Paper-III(A).<br />The questions will be definitional or seeking particular information<br />and are to be answered in up to 30 words each. Each question will<br />carry 5 marks (15 x 5 = 75 marks). There will be no internal choice.<br />The questions in this section shall be numbered from 6 to 20.<br /><hr /><br />Section III: Five extended answers based on analytical/evaluative questions will<br />be asked on the major specializations/electives. Questions will be<br />asked on all major specializations/electives and the candidates will be<br />asked to choose one specialisation/elective and answer the five<br />questions from it. The questions will be set from the syllabus for<br /><hr /><br />Paper-III(B). There is to be no internal choice. Each question will be<br />answered in up to 200 words and shall carry 12 marks (5 x 12 = 60<br />marks). Where there is no specialization/elective, 5 questions will be<br />set across the syllabus for Paper-III. The questions in this section shall<br />be numbered from 21 to 25.<br /><hr /><br />Section IV: Essay writing – One question with internal choice on general themes<br />and contemporary, theoretical or of disciplinary relevance will be<br />given. The candidate would write up to 1000 words. The question<br />should be numbered as 26.<br /></div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-22050147893937741802008-08-27T06:33:00.000-07:002008-09-08T04:19:56.609-07:00Definition of Pre History and Proto History<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgB8KDNroZdySGevN1sHvRbZCAoUhnbHEYaw9tfthWHU1Dh-etBvmJHH-qvjjE8njPbd9MlnOEBtyXmZoI15IpqVGVEdXEszz9jrqK0_QiKeEcfdcDFV7-uruiQtSA2nf8Tbkxq/s1600-h/Harneet_Singh.JPG"></a><br />Harneet Singh, the author of <a href="http://vibranthistory.blogspot.com/2008/07/word-history-in-simpler-terms-is-study.html" target="_blank">His-story or Vibrant History has written following defintion of Pre-History and Proto-History</a>.I am reproducing them here for the my definition section.<br /><div align="center"><br /><span style="color:#000099;"><strong>Pre history</strong> </span></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#000099;">The word Prehistory has been formed of two words - Pre (Latin) which means 'before' and Greek word 'historia' which means History. the term is often used to describe the period before written history. Paul Tournal originally coined the term Pré-historique in describing the findings he had made in the caves of southern France. It came into use in French in the 1830s to describe the time before writing, and was introduced into English by Daniel Wilson in 1851.Prehistory can be said to date back to the beginning of the universe itself, although the term is most often used to describe periods when there was life on Earth; dinosaurs can be described as prehistoric animals and cavemen are described as prehistoric people. </span></div><div align="center"><br /><span style="color:#000099;"><strong>Proto history</strong> </span></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#000099;">Protohistory refers to a period between prehistory and history, during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing, but other cultures have already noted its istence in their own writings. For example, in Europe, the Celts and the Germanic tribes may be considered to have been protohistoric when they began appearing in Greek and Roman texts. Protohistoric may also refer to the transition period between the advent of literacy in a society and the writings of the first historians. The preservation of oral traditions may complicate matters as these can provide a secondary historical source for even earlier events. Colonial sites involving a literate group and a non-literate group, are also studied as protohistoric situations. </span></div><div align="justify"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"><br /></span></div><div align="justify"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 153);"><hr /></span></div><div align="justify"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: rgb(0, 0, 153);">Harneet Singh Kochar has taken the above definition from Wikipedia. For better understand, one must read Spinning Clio Essay suggested on this very blog. Similarly the essay of Lyall is must for understanding the Philosophy of History </span></div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-16114618706926596112008-08-04T18:02:00.000-07:002008-08-04T18:05:45.124-07:00Nineteenth Century: An Age of HistoriansThe essay which is being reproduced for being a classic essay on philosophy of history, was a part of inaugural address to the students of King's College for Women, University of London, October 8, 1909 and delivered by Sir Alfred Comyn Lyall.<br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><br />I have intentionally borrowed a phrase from the essay itself to make it the title of this post. That actually sums up my understanding of this essay. However, on further criticism and elaboration, any reader, interested in philosophy of history, may find many more points.<br /><br />The essay follows:<br /></div><hr style="margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />Since I have accepted, at the request of your Warden, the honour of delivering an inaugural address on this occasion, it has appeared to me appropriate to choose, for such an audience, some literary subject. And I propose, with some diffidence, to offer a few observations on the reading of history, because in these latter days, when education has come in upon us like a flood, rising higher and spreading wider every year among our people, no part of literature is more sedulously studied than the field of history. On the other hand, this field is being very rapidly enlarged. It has been said that the output of histories during the nineteenth century has exceeded in bulk and volume the production of all previous centuries. And in all the countries now standing in the forefront of civilisation, the chief product of their serious literature is at this time historical and biographical—for I take authentic biography to be a kind of handmaid of history. It has been reported that during the ten years ending 1907 there were published in England 5498 books under the head of history, and 1059 biographies. Moreover, of those who are not actually writing history, an important number are occupied in criticising the historians.<br /><br /><br />Now the first observation that I submit to you is that the production of all history has been almost entirely the work of Europeans, among whom I reckon the American writers, as belonging by language and culture to Europe. So far as the African continent has any trustworthy history, it is in some European language. In Asia there have been annalists, chroniclers, and genealogists, mostly Mohammedan, who narrate the wars and exploits of great conquerors, the succession of kings, and the rise and fall of dynasties. And I believe that in China official record of public events and transactions has been kept up from very early ages. But if we measure these Asiatic narratives by the standard of literary merit and the demand for authentication of facts, I fear that they will be found wanting; though they may be relied upon to give the general course of important events, and an outline of the result of battles and the upsetting of thrones.<br /><br /><br />When these Asiatic chroniclers wrote of the times in and near which they were living, they were fairly trustworthy. But whenever they attempted to write of times long past and of countries unknown to them personally, their narratives became for the most part fabulous and romantic, confused and improbable, with some grains of truth here and there. Our best information regarding the earlier ages of Asia is derived, I think, from Greek and Latin literature, and latterly from the researches of quite modern scholars and archæologists. So that it may be affirmed that authentic history began in Europe, and that to Europe it has ever since been practically confined. At this day the history of all parts of the world is being written by Europeans. The result has been that for the last 2500 years historical material, collected from and relating to all parts of the world, has been accumulating in Europe.<br /><br /><br />Such masses of records and monuments necessarily require methodical treatment by men of trained intelligence and of untiring industry, learned, and accurate. Their systematic labours, their acute and intelligent criticism, have created what is now usually termed the Science of History, which abstracts general conclusions from the mass of particulars. And so, I think, we may agree with Renan, who has declared that to the nineteenth century may be accorded the title of the Age of Historians, and that this has been the special distinction of that century's literature.<br /><br /><br />Now I believe that the question, whether history is an art or a science, is not yet universally settled. But whatever may be the case in these modern days, I submit that in earlier times, and certainly when history began to be written, it was mainly an art. Indeed, it could hardly have been otherwise. In all ages and countries, from the time when men first attained to some stage of elementary culture, they have been curious about the past, they have enjoyed hearing of the deeds and fame of their ancestors, of far-off things and battles long ago. But the primitive chronicler had very slight material for his stories of bygone times—he had few, if any, documents—he was himself creating the documentary evidence for those who came after him; he could only compile his narratives from tradition, legends, anecdotes of heroic ancestors, from information picked up by travel to famous places, and so on. Yet from sources of this kind he composed tales of inestimable value as representing the ideas, habits, and social condition of preceding generations that were very like his own. Herodotus, who is our best example of the class, reconstructs, revives, and relates conversations that neither he nor his informants could have actually heard; but he does this in order to give a dramatic version of great events. In the opening sentence of his first book he says that he has written in order that the actions of men may not be effaced by time, nor great and wondrous deeds be deprived of renown. And one may notice the same style and method in the historical books of the Old Testament. In both these ancient histories the narratives represent life, action, speech, situations.<br /><br /><br />It is futile, I may suggest, to subject work of this sort to critical analysis by attempting to sift out what is probably true from what is certainly false. You only break up the picture, you destroy the artistic effect, which is at least a true reflection of real life. Moreover, it is dangerous for learned men sitting in libraries to regard as incredible facts stated by these old writers. The legend of Romulus and Remus having been suckled by a wolf has been dismissed as a childish fable. Yet it is certain that this very thing has happened more than once in the forests of India within the memory of living men. You cannot be particular about details, you must take the story as a whole.<br /><br /><br />From this standpoint we may agree, I think, that in illiterate times, and, indeed, throughout the middle ages of Europe, history-writing was practised as an art. The unlearned chronicler wrote in no fear of critics or sceptics; he drew striking scenes and portraits; he described warlike exploits; he related characteristic sayings and dialogues which completely satisfied his audience or his readers. The society in which he lived was not far different, in morals and manners, from that which he portrayed, so that he can have committed very few anachronisms or incongruities; and in sentiments and character-drawing he could not go far astray. He produced, at any rate, vivid impressions of reality, just as Shakespeare's historical plays have stamped upon the English mind the figures of Hotspur or Richard III., which have been thus set up in permanent type for all subsequent ages. At any rate portraits of this kind have not been modernised to suit the taste of a later age, as has been done with King Arthur in Tennyson's 'Idylls of the King.' And when work of this sort has been finely executed, the question whether the details are untrustworthy or even fictitious is immaterial, particularly in cases where the precise facts can never be recovered. We do not know exactly how the battle of Marathon, or, indeed, the battle of Hastings, was fought, but we have in the chronicles something of great value—a true outline of the general situation, and some stirring narratives of the clash and wrestling of armed men, compiled either at first hand from the recollections of those who were actually on the field, or else taken at second hand from others who made notes of what had been told them by those present at the battles. This, then, is what I meant when I said that in early times history was an art. Its method was picturesque. <br /><br />Now my next observation is that, although the science of history has since been invented, we have, among quite modern English writers, men of singular genius, who have to some extent followed the example, adopted the manner, of the ancient annalist. Like him, they are artists, their aim has been to depict famous men, to reproduce striking incidents and scenes dramatically. Their technical methods, so to speak, are entirely different from those of the old chronicler, who sketched with a free hand, and trusted largely to his inspirations, to his own experience of what was likely to have been said or done, or to popular tradition, which is always animated and distinct. The modern historian, of what I may call the school of impressionists, has no such experience, he knows nothing personally of violent scenes or fierce deeds; he composes his picture of things that happened long ago from a mass of papers, books, memoirs, that have come down to us. Yet although style and substance are quite different, the chief aim, the design, of the ancient and modern artist in history is the same. They both strive to set before their reader a vision of certain scenes and figures at moments of energetic action—not only to tell him a story, but to make him see it. Let me give an example. Every one here may remember the story in the Old Testament (2nd Book of Kings) of Jehu driving furiously into Jezreel, how on his way he smote Ahaziah, king of Judah, with an arrow, and how Jezebel, the Phœnician Queen, was hurled down out of her palace window to be devoured by dogs in the street. And some of you may have read in Froude's History of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth his description of the murder of David Rizzio by the fierce Scotch nobles, how he was killed clinging to Queen Mary's knees in her chamber in Holyrood Palace. Now the manner, the artistic presentation of ferocious action, are in both cases alike; we have the words spoken and the deeds done; we can look on at the bloody tragedy; we have a dramatic version of the story. The ancient writer of the Old Testament probably did his work naturally, instinctively; he tells the story as he received it by word of mouth, briefly—laying stress only on the things that cut into the imagination of an eye-witness, and remain in the memory of those to whom they were related. He troubles us with no moral reflections, but goes on quietly to the next chapter of incidents. The modern historian has composed his picture from details collected by study of documents; he puts in adjectives as a painter lays on colour; yet the effect, the impression, is of the same quality: it is artistic.<br /><br /><br />Now the principal English historians of the modern school, who revived what one may call the dramatic presentation of history, I take to be Macaulay, Froude, and Carlyle. They all worked upon genuine material, upon authentic records of the period which they were writing about. Lord Acton mentions that Froude spoke of having consulted 100,000 papers in manuscript, at home and abroad, for one of his histories. Macaulay was industrious and indefatigable. Yet Ranke, the great German historian, said of Macaulay that he could hardly be called a historian at all, judged by the strict tests of German criticism. And Freeman, the English historian, brought violent charges against Froude of deliberately twisting his facts and misquoting his authorities; though I believe that Freeman's bitter jealousies led him into grave exaggerations. Then take Carlyle. His Cromwell is a fine portrait by an eminent literary artist. But is it a genuine delineation of the man himself, of his motives, of the working of his mind in speech and action? Later investigation, minute scrutiny of old and new material, suggest doubts, different interpretations of conduct and character. Take, again, his description of the battle of Dunbar, Cromwell's great victory. Carlyle explains to us the nature of the ground, the movements of the troops, the tactics, the points of attack, with admirable force and clearness—it is a marvellous specimen of literary execution. Yet recent and very careful examination of the locality, and a comparison of the evidence of eye-witnesses, have proved beyond doubt that Carlyle had not studied the ground, had made some important errors. He was, in fact, giving a dramatic representation of the battle, which, if it had come down to us from some mediæval annalist, would have been universally accepted as genuine. In short, these three artists have all suffered damage under scientific treatment.<br /><br /><br />Now I am not here to disparage Macaulay, Froude, or Carlyle. They were all, in my opinion, authors of rare genius, whose places in the forefront of the literature of the nineteenth century are permanently secure. Yet I fear that the tendency of the twentieth century is unfavourable to the artistic historian. It seems to me probable, much to my personal regret, that the scientific writing of history, based upon exhaustive research, accumulation and minute sifting of all available details, relentless verification of every statement, will gradually discourage and supersede the art of picturesque composition. In the first place the spirit of doubt and distrust is abroad, every statement is scrutinised and tested. The imaginative historian cannot lay on his colours, or fill up his canvas, by effective and lively touches without finding his work placed under the microscope of erudite analysts, some of whom, like Iago, are nothing if not critical, are not only exact but very exacting. In these days a writer who endeavours to illuminate some scene of ages past, to show us, as by a magic lantern, the moving figures brought out in relief against the surrounding darkness, is liable to be set down as an illusionist, possibly even as a charlatan or conjurer. Yet one feels the charm of the splendid vision, though it may fade into the light of common day when it falls under relentless scrutiny, and one is haunted by the doubt whether the scientific historian, with all his conscientious accuracy, is after all much nearer the reality than the literary artist. For it is seriously questionable whether the precise truth about bygone events and men long dead can ever actually be discovered, whether, by piecing together what has come down to us in documents, we can resuscitate from the dust-heap of records the state of society many centuries ago. And in regard to historical portrait painting Lord Acton has warned intending historians to seek no unity of character—to remember that allowance must always be made for human inconsistencies; that a man is never all of one piece. But cautious conclusions, nice weighing of evidence, do not satisfy the ordinary reader. The vivid impressions that are stamped on his mind by the power of style are what he mostly requires and retains; and these we are all reluctant to lose. We must concede to the writer, as to the painter, some indulgence of his imaginative faculty. Otherwise we must leave the battle scenes and the national portrait gallery to the poets and romancers of genius—to Shakespeare and Walter Scott, whose art had nothing to gain from accuracy, who have only to give us the types, the right colouring and strong outline of life and character in days bygone.<br /><br /><br />However, I think we shall be compelled to accept the change from the artistic to the scientific school of historians, though we may regret it as unavoidable. It is the vast enlargement of the field of historical study, the strong critical searchlight that is turned on all the dark corners and outlying tracts of this field, that is irresistibly affecting the work of writers, enforcing the need of caution, of scrutinising every point, of weighing evidence in the finest scales, of assaying its precise value. The contemporary writer has to deal with the huge accumulation of material to which I have already referred; he must ransack archives, hunt through records piled up, public and private, must decipher ancient manuscript, must follow the labours of the wandering collector of inscriptions and the excavator of old tombs. He has to make extracts from correspondence, diaries, and notes of travel which are coming for the first time to the light; he must keep abreast of foreign literature and criticism. The mass and multiplicity of documentary evidence now at his disposal, most of which may not have been available to his predecessors, is enormous. Some twelve years ago Lord Acton wrote: 'The honest student has to hew his way through multitudinous transactions, periodicals and official publications, where it is difficult to sweep the horizon or to keep abreast. The result has been that the classics of historical literature are found inadequate, are being re-written, and the student has to be warned that they have been superseded by later discoveries.'<br />What has been the effect of this altered situation upon the writer of history at the present time? On such an extensive field of operations, which has to be cultivated so intensely, he finds himself compelled to contract the scope of his operations; he can only take up very narrow ground. So in many instances he limits himself to a period, or even to a single reign, to a particular class of historical personage, or to some special department of human activity. He looks about for a plot that he can work thoroughly; he concentrates his attention upon some line or aspect of a subject in which he may hope that he has not been anticipated by others. Lord Acton has laid down that 'every student ought to know that mastery is acquired by acknowledged limitation'—he must peg out his small holding and keep within its bounds. Histories are now written by many and various hands—as in the case of the Cambridge Modern History, which already counts numerous volumes—and so the general area is divided and subdivided among experts, each of whom dips deeply into his particular allotment, and takes heavy crops off his ground. Yet the productiveness of the field at large seems still inexhaustible, for there is always some new theory to be established, some fresh vein of facts to be opened, some corrections or additions to be made. Moreover, the experts, while they toil at their own special work, while they attack a difficult problem from different sides, must nevertheless co-operate with each other. Sir William Ramsay, a noted archæologist, tells us that for a new study of history there is needed a group of scholars working in unison; that the solitary historian is doomed to failure. He adds that the history of the Roman empire has still to be re-written. The late Lord Acton, when as Professor of Modern History at Cambridge he drew out his plan for a modern history that would satisfy the scientific demand for completeness and exactitude, proposed to distribute the work among more than a hundred writers. He observed that the entire bulk of new matter which the last forty years have supplied amounts to many thousand volumes. When history becomes the product of many hands and various minds the artistic element is likely to disappear.<br />One obvious result of this state of things is that we hear no more of the old-fashioned histories embracing vast subjects, the work of a single author—of histories of the world, or a history of Europe like Alison's in thirty volumes. Indeed it is not long since Buckle found his History of European Civilisation unmanageable; he died before he could finish it. At the present time historical subjects are divided and subdivided by classes, periods, or even single events. Art, literature, philosophy, war, diplomacy, receive separate treatment. We have colonial histories in numerous thick volumes; though no English colony has a long past. We have histories of the queens who have reigned in their own right, like Queen Elizabeth, and of Queens Consort: we have even a book on the bachelor kings of England, written by a lady who proves undeniably that these unlucky bachelors—there were only three of them—all came to a bad or sad end. As to military historians, Kinglake's History of the Crimean War takes up, I think, some eight volumes. The whole course of the recent Boer War has been related in five substantial volumes. Neither of these wars lasted more than two years, yet both histories are many times larger than Schiller's History of the Thirty Years' War in Germany. The only edition of Schiller's work that I have found in the library of this University is in four small volumes.<br />Now, the drawback to the composition of histories on this ample and elaborate scale is obviously this—that the ordinary man or woman can hardly be expected to read them, or at most to read more than two or three of them. So there has sprung up a natural demand for something lighter and shorter; the amplification has produced a supply of abbreviation. The massive volumes, the heaps of material, are taken in hand by very capable writers with a clear eye for the main points, for striking incidents and personalities. The big books are sliced up into convenient portions, and served up in attractive form and manageable quantities. The work is often done with admirable skill and judgment. You thus obtain a bird's-eye view of the past; you have the loftier prominences and bold outlines of the historic landscape.<br />In these serials, which are deservedly popular, you can read short biographies, for example, of English Men of Letters, of English Men of Action, of famous Scotsmen, Rulers of India, Heroes of the Nation. You have also a story of all the nations in series, and thus you can limit your mental survey to separate periods, events, countries, and figures. You are carried swiftly and adroitly over the dry interspaces which lie between startling incidents or between supremely interesting epochs.<br />Now I have no doubt that these series, which contain much sound information very skilfully condensed, have been of real service in the propagation of historical knowledge. On the other hand, we have to consider that this kind of reading is disconnected in style and subject. The reader can make a long jump from one period to another, or from the statesman of one century to another who flourished in a very different country and age. And the handling of these diverse subjects is not uniform; the points of view or lines of thought are various, and may be contradictory. It may be expedient to warn those who use these excellent summaries against the habit of neglecting the great English classics for short biographies or compendious sketches of periods and personages, as if one could learn enough of Edmund Burke, or Milton, or Oliver Cromwell, or master the events of some important period, from a well-written serial in some two hundred pages.<br />The demand for these historical handbooks has evidently been created by the spread of general education, which stimulates the laudable desire to learn something about subjects of which it is hardly respectable, in these days, to be ignorant. Such knowledge is very useful to those who have no leisure for more; and it is far superior to mere desultory reading, to the habit of picking out amusing bits here and there. Yet I hope it is unnecessary to impress on earnest students of history that they must go further; must push up as near as possible to the fountain heads of the rivers of knowledge; must make acquaintance with the masterpieces of literature—that their reading must be continuous and consecutive.<br />Now those among you who are studying for University honours have no need for any advice from me; they are well aware that the wide expansion, in these days, of the field of history has raised the standard of examinations, and that they must be prepared for questions testing a candidate's critical acumen, the breadth and depth of his reading, much more closely than was required formerly. But there must also be many here present who have no examinations in front of them, who have no ardent inclination or even leisure for abstruse labours. And I presume that all of you read history for a clear understanding of past ages, of the acts and thoughts of the great men who illustrate those times. You all desire to comprehend the sequence and significance of events. You feel the intellectual pleasure of appreciating rightly the character and motive of the men and women who stand in the foreground of our country's annals, and also of those who are famous in other countries, to know how and why they rose or fell, whether they deserved the success that they won, or won it without deserving it. Moreover, for us English folk, who live at the centre of an empire containing races and communities in various stages of political development, the lessons of history have a special value. They teach us to judge leniently of acts and opinions that appear to us irrational and even iniquitous as we see them in other backward countries at the present day. We learn that manners and morals may not be unchangeable in a nation; that fallacies and prejudices are not ineradicable; that even cruelty, tyranny, reckless bloodshed, are not incurable vices. For history tells us that some of the nations now foremost in the ranks of civilisation have passed through the stages of society in which such things are possible. And thus we can study the circumstances and conditions of political existence which have retarded the upward progress of certain nations and accelerated the advance of others. Such inquiries belong to the philosophy of history. When we read, for example, the history of England in the fifteenth or sixteenth century, we find that our ancestors, born and bred in this same island, kindly men in private life and sincerely religious, intellectually not our inferiors, yet, when they took sides in politics or Church questions, did things which appear to us utterly cruel, against reason, justice, and humanity. To remember this helps us to realise the difficulty of passing fair judgment not only on the conduct of our forefathers, but upon the actions and character of other peoples and governments that are doing very similar things at the present time in other parts of the world. We shall find it an arduous task to assign motives, to weigh considerations, to acquit or condemn. So that, to the politician of to-day, history ought to be an invaluable guide and monitor for taking an impartial measure of the difficulties of government in troubled or perilous circumstances. Yet one sometimes wishes that the record of the fierce and bitter struggles of former days had been forgotten, for it still breeds rancour and resentment among the descendants of the people that fought for lost causes, and suffered the penalty of defeat. The remembrance keeps alive grievances, and the ancient tale of wrongs that have long been remedied survives to perpetuate national antipathies. Moreover, in some of the most celebrated cases known to our own annals, we are never sure that we have the whole case before us, for the historians give doubtful help, since the best authorities often take opposite views, as, for instance, on the question whether Mary Queen of Scots was her husband's murderess, or a much injured and calumniated lady. The admitted facts are valued differently, interpreted variously, and made to support contradictory conclusions. The latest historian of Rome, Signor Ferrero, sums up a long and elaborate dissertation on the acts and character of Julius Cæsar by a judgment which differs emphatically from the views of all preceding historians. On some of these disputed questions we may make up our minds after studying the evidence; but many historical problems are in truth insoluble; the evidence is imperfect and untrustworthy.<br />These, then, are some of the warnings we may take from history. We must not be hasty about condemning misdeeds of past generations, whether of the rulers or their people. The times were hard, so were the men; they were encompassed by dangers, while we who criticise them live in ease and safety. And when we hear at the present day of misrule and strife and bloodshed among other races—in Asia, for example—we may remember our own story, and we may trust that they also will work their way upward to peace and concord.<br />But the truth is that, as our knowledge of the past is very imperfect, so also our predictions of the future are very fallible. The best observers can see only a very short way ahead. History shows us how frequently the course of affairs has taken quite unexpected turns, for good or for ill, forward or backward. On the whole, we may believe that the main direction is certainly toward the gradual betterment of the world at large, though the theory of progress is quite modern, for the ancients looked behind them for the Golden Age. Nowadays we trumpet the glory of our British empire; yet at intervals our confidence in its fortunes is shaken by some sharp panic; the decline and fall of England is predicted. It is, indeed, perilous to be overconfident, to live in a fool's paradise, for some of us have seen in our lifetime the sudden catastrophes that have overtaken great empires. But history may comfort us when we read how often the downfall of England has been predicted, how we have been on the brink of shooting down Niagara, as Carlyle declared, or threatened with imminent invasion, with total loss of commerce and colonies, with defeat abroad and bankruptcy at home. And yet our country is still fairly prosperous and free, and as for invasions, we may still trust that, as Coleridge has written:<br /><br />'Ocean 'mid the uproar wild<br />Speaks safety to his island child.'<br /><br />But on the whole history gives political prophets little encouragement—we cannot foretell the future from the past. Nevertheless, there is some truth in the saying that history is like an old almanac, if we may take this to mean that, although the same events never happen again in the same way, yet in the great movements of the tide of the world's affairs a sort of periodical recurrence, an ebb and flow, may be noticed. For example, we know that from the fifteenth until near the end of the seventeenth century the Asiatic armies of the Turkish Sultans were invading and conquering South-Eastern Europe—they reached the gates of Vienna. Then followed a swing backward of the pendulum, and from the eighteenth to the end of the nineteenth century the European Powers, Russia and England, were each extending a great dominion over Asia. Again, up to a few years ago, the Turkish empire was a barbarous despotism, and we all believed that it must break up and be extinguished. Yet it has now revived in a new form, which may possibly restore its power and prosperity. To search for and distinguish the operating causes, the powers that underlie these incalculable changes, is a task for the student of history.<br />There must be many of you for whom these high problems have a strong attraction, who enjoy rapid flights over the broad surface of history, wide outlooks over the past and future. Now, I admit that bold generalisations are hazardous, unless founded upon very solid knowledge; but in historical as well as in physical science they are needed to sum up results, to bring facts into focus. They enable us, so the late Lord Acton has said, to fasten on abiding issues, to distinguish the temporary from the transient.<br />The late Lord Acton, who, as you may remember, was Professor of Modern History at Cambridge, is reckoned by general consent to have surpassed all his contemporaries, at least in England, by his encyclopædic, accurate, and profound knowledge of history. His reading was vast, his learning prodigious, his industry never slackened. Yet the literary production of his life is contained in three volumes of essays, lectures, and articles; he has left us no complete book. Indeed, his writing is so disproportionate to his reading that one is tempted to liken his luminous intellect to a fire on which too much fuel had been heaped; the ardent mind glowed and shot up its streaks of radiance through the weight of erudition that overlaid it. Among Lord Acton's published papers is a 'Note of Advice to Persons about to Write History,' of which the first word is Don't. But he then proceeds to jot down some hints and maxims, brief and caustic, for the benefit of those who nevertheless persist in writing; and to some of these I commend the attention of readers, since upon readers as well as upon writers lies the duty of forming careful opinions, of judging impartially, in working out their conclusions upon the events and personages of past times. For Lord Acton was an indefatigable researcher after truth; his standard of public morality was austere, lofty, and uncompromising. I myself venture to think that he was too rigid; he admitted no excuse for breaches of the moral law on the pretext, however urgent, of political necessity; he refused to allow extenuation of violence or bloodshed even in times of great emergency. 'The inflexible integrity of the moral code,' he said, 'is to me the secret of the authority, the dignity, the utility of history.' Now this is hard doctrine for most of us to follow when we set ourselves, as students, to condemn or acquit, to blame or to praise the prominent actors in the drama of our national history. On that stage, as we all know, the real tragedies that stand on record were sanguinary enough, and the parts occasionally played in them by our ancestors were of a sort that now appear most unnatural and indefensible to their descendants. Yet most of us are disposed to regard with some leniency even the crimes of a violent and lawless age.<br />But however this may be, some of Lord Acton's counsels are undoubtedly valuable as warnings or for guidance, either as lamps to show the right road, or as lighthouses to keep us from going wrong. His inaugural lecture at Cambridge on the Study of History is full of precepts, maxims, warnings, injunctions, all of which may be pondered by students with advantage. We are enjoined, for example, to beware of permitting our historic judgment to be warped by influences, whether of Country, Class, Church, College, or Party; and it is said, by way of driving home the warning, that the most respectable of these influences is the most dangerous. But very few writers, and, I suspect, not many readers, can hold their mental balance quite steadily, can weigh testimony on either side of a question quite dispassionately, when our Church, or our Country, perhaps even our University, is concerned. Nor is it easy for students to find historians who are entirely unmoved by bias of these kinds, who have neither a theory to prove, nor a cause to support, nor a hero to be exalted, nor a sinner to be whitewashed. Indeed, the wicked men of history have always found some ingenious advocate to defend them by attempting to justify bad acts on the ground of excellent motives and intentions, of the exigencies of the situation, or other excuses and explanations. It is certain that some of the worst crimes on record, assassinations and savage persecutions, have been defended on pretexts of this kind, by allegations of patriotism or devotion to a faith. Not many weeks have passed since a dastardly murder was perpetrated in London, close to this spot, by a crazy wretch who declared himself a patriot.<br />So we may profitably lay to mind Lord Acton's stern denunciation, not only of criminals in high places, but of all, high or low, who pretend that foul deeds may be justified by asserting pure motives. Let me quote again from Lord Acton. He has said: 'Of killing, from private motives or from public, eadem est ratio, there is no difference. Morally, the worst is the last; the fanatic assassin, the cruel inquisitor, are the worst of all; they are more, not less, infamous, because they use religion or political expediency as a cloak for their crimes.' He affirms elsewhere that crimes by constitutional authorities—by Popes and Kings—are more indefensible than those committed by private malefactors. And he holds that the theorist is more guilty than the actual assassin; that the worst use of theory is to make men insensible to fact, to the real complexion and true quality of conduct. He would probably have insisted that journalists and others who instigate political crimes are at least quite as bad as the actual criminal. Herein, at any rate, we may thoroughly agree with him, though the question whether the intercourse of nations and their Governments can be strictly regulated by the same moral standard which rules among individuals, does raise difficult points for the conscientious student of history. We have to remember that no power exists to enforce international laws or police, so that every Government has to rely upon its own strength for the defence of its people and the preservation of its rights.<br />On the whole, I do not know any recent works that may be more profitable for advice and guidance in reading history than these three volumes of Lord Acton's. They contain the essence of his unceasing labours in collecting, comparing, and testing an immense quantity of historic material. They are particularly valuable for the flashes of insight into the deeper relations of events, for brief, sententious observations in which he sums up his judgments upon men and their doings. They are not to be taken lightly; they demand all your attention, for the style is compressed and packed with meaning; and the author seems to expect his readers to be prepared with more knowledge than, I think, most of us possess. His allusions take for granted so much learning that they occasionally puzzle the average man. For example, in one of his essays he makes a passing reference to 'those who in the year 1348 shared the worst crimes that Christian nations have committed.' What these crimes were he does not say; and how many of us could answer the question off-hand? Certainly I could not. But the lectures and essays abound in far-ranging ideas, and show profound penetration into historic causes and consequences. Some of the essays, written in comparative youth, betray here and there a natural leaning towards the Church of Rome, in which he was born, and against Protestantism; yet his hatred of intolerance and despotism, spiritual or temporal, was sincere and intense. In politics he was a Liberal, yet he saw that Liberal institutions, representative government, are by no means a sure and speedy remedy for misrule in all times and countries, as in our day simple folk are apt to suppose. In writing of the condition of Europe during the earlier middle ages he observes: 'To bring order out of chaotic mire, to rear a new civilisation and blend hostile and unequal races into a nation, the thing wanted was not Liberty, but Force.'<br />Here is a bold and clear-sighted deduction from the lessons of history, which revolutionary politicians in Asia, where no nationalities have yet been formed, may well take to heart. Parliamentary institutions, as Lord Acton has well said, presuppose unity of a people.<br />Scattered through these volumes may be found, indeed, certain brief paragraphs which, as they contain the essence of much learning and deep thought, may well set us all thinking. In a remarkable essay on the historical relations of Church and State Lord Acton observes: 'The State is so closely linked with religion, that no nation that has changed its religion has ever survived in its old political form.' Here again is a striking generalisation which a student might set himself to verify by careful examination of the facts.<br />And now I will make an end of my address by quoting one more remark of Lord Acton, in which he gives his definition of history taken as a whole. 'By universal history,' he says, 'I understand that which is distinct from the combined history of all countries, which is not a rope of sand, but a continuous development, and is not a burden on the memory, but an illumination of the soul. It moves in a succession to which the nations are subsidiary. Their story will be told, not for their own sake, but in subordination to a higher series, according to the time and the degree in which they contribute to the common fortunes of mankind.'<br /><br /></div><hr style="margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />Source:<br /><br /><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25937/25937-h/25937-h.htm#Page_377" target="_blank">Gutenberg Project</a><br /></div><hr style="margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />Post Script:<br />The above essay, being a part of the Philosophy of History and especially the Cambridge School of History which is the core of Colonial History, will be referred to again and again in this blog at appropriate places.<br /><br /><br /></div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1145542100988884002006-04-20T07:08:00.000-07:002006-04-20T07:08:21.000-07:00Spinning Clio : Where History and Politics Meet: Introduction to Historical Method: Index<a href="http://cliopolitical.blogspot.com/2005/08/introduction-to-historical_112482482753969170.html">Spinning Clio : Where History and Politics Meet: Introduction to Historical Method: Index</a><br /><br />The Student of History UGC Net find this posting useful for Methodology in history and Philosophy of History.There is subjective questions on this part. It is a compulsory question.<br /><br />In the referred link, one will find four lectures of good quality. However, those lectures/ notes are different from what one can find in B. Sheik Ali book.The notes also mention Heruistic methods, which I was not able to understand when I cleared JRF in 1992.<br /><br />The articles also mention such steps which one may not find explained as such in Indian books.On the whole they are very brief but quite effective. They are good for preparing notes.However, as it is a general trend, there are questions which include some quotation about the philosophy of history and for that one should refer to B. Sheik Ali or any other book which they study for the paper.<br /><br />One can also imbibe and comprehend all the four articles. They can be quite useful in writing small essays during interviews for Lecturership as it is done at many places. One can also perpare good answers for interviews because, apart from asking question on the field of your interest, generaly, the interviews also try to check the philosophical understanding of the subject. One can answer it well if one understand that what are steps that are adopting while undertaking a research in history. If one appears for University post, one can expect to get question on methodology in history. At university level, the interviewers mostly ask questions on research methodology and new trends in historiography (like, they ask about post modernism) apart from grilling you on the field on your interest.Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1129111036038333802005-10-12T02:52:00.000-07:002005-10-12T03:03:16.903-07:00Samskaras<div align="justify"><br /><strong><a href="http://ugc-net-history.blogspot.com/2005/03/syllabus-ugc-net-history.html">Samskaras</a></strong></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#3366ff;">During the post Vedic age or pre-Buddhist Age or the later part of Later Vedic period, the life was fully ritualized. It was the part of the process of development of Vedic Life of Aryans wherein each aspect of individual life and the society was taken care of. </span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#cc33cc;">Samskaras are set of rituals which were performed during the life time of an Aryan. These are explained in Sutra literature. The various Samskaras and the method of performing those Samkaras are given in Grihya Sutra. Such ceremonies usually starts when the conception of a child took place. They continue throughout his life and even after death. Such an elaborate set of ceremonies guided the four stages of the life of an individual which is also known as Chatur Ashram Vayvasta or simply Ashram Vayvasta.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#cc6600;">Some of the major Samskaras are Garbhadharna (performed when a child is conceived.), Pumsavana (for procuring a male child.), simantonnyanna (to ensure safe delivery of child.), jartakarma, (at the birth of child.) annaparsana (when solid food is given to the child for the first time.), cudakarma (when hairs are removed for the first time.), uppanyana (considered as second birth when he is declared divijya and starts his Brhamcharya asharama), marriage, saradhas, and so on. There are nearly forty such samskaras which are performed through different stages of every Aryan. There are some minor sanskara which an Aryan is expected to perform every day.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#990000;">With such an elaborate rituals, the life of an Aryan is expected to get organized. However, when gradually the dominance of Brhamans increased over such sacrifices during the later stage of Later Vedic Age, there emerged rigidity and ceremonial performance of such rituals. Such a way of life later became the major features of identification of a life of Hindus.</span><br /></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify">__________<br /><span style="color:#ff6666;"><strong>Sources:</strong></span><br /><span style="color:#330099;">The History and Culture of Indian People, volume one, Chapter 25 and 26, edited by R. C. Majumdar; Wonder That Was India, Chapter V, by A. L. Basham and Life and Culture in Ancient India by B. N. Luniya.</span> </div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1129104974688100072005-10-12T01:12:00.000-07:002005-10-27T02:29:15.720-07:00Bharatvarsha<div align="justify"><strong><a href="http://ugc-net-history.blogspot.com/2005/03/syllabus-ugc-net-history.html">Bharatvarsha</a></strong></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">According to the <strong>Vishnu Purana</strong></span>,<br />"<span style="color:#cc33cc;">The country that lies north of the ocean and the south of the snowy munatains is called Bharat for there dwell the descendants of the Bharat</span>."<br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">In Sanskrit</span>, <strong><span style="color:#6633ff;">as per Vishnu Purana</span></strong>,<br /><span style="color:#ff0000;">Uttaram yastsamundrasya,<br />Himadres Haiva dakshinain<br />Vaisham tad Bharatam nama<br />Bharatiyatia santatih. </span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#3366ff;">In other words, it is stated that the subcontinent of India stretches from the Himalayas to the sea. It is known as Bharatvarsha, or the land of Bharat where the descendants of Bharata live. Bharata was a king highly praised in Puranas. As per the continents of various Puranas, Bharatvarsh was a land which formed the part of a larger unit called <strong>Jambu-dvipa</strong>. Bharatvarsha on Jambu-divipa (island or the continent) was considered to be the innermost of the seven concentric islands or the continents into which the earth, as conceived in the Puranas, was supposed to have been divided.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#6633ff;">In epics and some of the Purana, the whole Jambu-divpa is called the Bharatvarsha.</span> </div><div align="justify"> </div><div align="justify">_____</div><div align="justify">Later addition: </div><div align="justify">Bharatvarsha is divided into nine Khandas or parts: Indra-dvipa, Kaserumat, Taamra varna Gabhastimat, Naga-dwipa, Saumya, Gandharva and Varuna. (Source: A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion by John Dowson, Rupa and Co. New Delhi) </div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1129042136376813772005-10-11T07:42:00.000-07:002005-10-11T07:48:56.386-07:00Comment on Indhistory Web site<div align="justify"><br /><strong>On the link </strong><a href="http://www.indhistory.com/ashoka.html"><strong>Asoka</strong></a><strong>, the </strong><a href="http://www.indhistory.com/"><strong>Indhistory web site titled IH </strong></a><strong>has given some details on Asoka.</strong><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">According to the content of the site, Asoka ascended the throne in 273 B. C. It is a wrong statement. There is no definite proof about the date of his accession. However, on the basis of a clue on the thirteenth rock edict, it is learned that he undertook the accession in the ninth year. On the basis of the references in Divyavadana, a Buddhist text, we can ascertain that the war took place in 261 B. C. It is again referred there that he acquired the throne with the help of Radhagupta. Radhagupta was the chief minister of Bindusara who had appointed his eldest son Susima as the next emperor on the throne of Mauryan Empire.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#009900;">The second statement which is against the established sources, it is claimed that he was the most trusted son of Bindusara. It is also not true. The fact was that as an administrator under his father kingship, he proved more successful in Ujjain and Taxila. Both these province capitals were first held by Susima.<br /></span><br /><br /><span style="color:#999900;">Similarly, it is on record on the 13th Pillar inscription that he had made 150000 people as slave. But it is written there that they were injured.<br /></span><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">Similarly, it has been claimed that he became total vegetarian. However, it is not conclusion derived at by most of the established historians.<br /></span><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">In the same manner, it is claimed that he adopted Buddhism just after the Kalinga war. He had taken nearly two and half year to decide to adopt Buddhism. Such a fact is available in his own inscription on Bhabru Cave inscription. Most of historians have concluded that it was a child monk Nigrodha who motivated him to Buddhism. However, it was Moggasli Putta Tissa, under whom, he worked for promoting Buddhist religion. According to Buddhism sources it was Upagupta who initiated him into Buddhism. However, Asoka had inscribed about his faith on Bhabru Cave inscription but he had no where mentioned his preceptor.</span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color:#3333ff;">The use of word Dharma as promoted by Asoka is also not in the right spirit. He had got inscribed many Pillar inscriptions (Eight in main), in which he had not mentioned anything about Buddhism.<br /></span><br />_____________________<br /><span style="color:#33cc00;">The above criticism is done in good faith only. I have personal nothing against the site owner. It is only that being a history student and teacher, I am stating which I have learned and continue to learn from my regular study which my dharma.<br />______________________<br />UGC student may derive useful information on the accession and adoption of Buddhism of Asoka. </span></div><div align="justify"><span style="color:#33cc00;">_____________<br />Category: Review of a Web site on Indian History. </span></div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1128967086573287682005-10-10T10:58:00.000-07:002005-10-10T11:06:25.320-07:00Civil Services Prelims: Sanskrit Literature: Books and Authors BankThe details of <strong><a href="http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0079.HTM">Sanskrit literature</a></strong> is given in an essay in Banglapadiea. By clicking on Sanskrit literature term, you can reach there. The contents of essay will itself show you its utility for your preparation.Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1128966429024259532005-10-10T10:47:00.000-07:002005-10-10T10:47:09.043-07:00SUMIR SHARMA: Hindi Granth Karyalay: Munshi Premchand : A brief life sketchA brief life sketch of <a href="http://sumirsharma.blogspot.com/2005/10/hindi-granth-karyalay-munshi-premchand.html#links"><strong>Munshi Prem Chand</strong></a> with the names of the titles of his literary work. Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1127353255936789312005-09-21T18:37:00.000-07:002005-09-21T18:40:55.940-07:00December 2005Attention,<br /><br />The application for the Decemeber 2005 UGC is out.<br /><br />It is also available on the UGC web site.Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1125569689144436962005-09-01T03:06:00.000-07:002005-09-01T03:14:49.153-07:00Feudalism for NET/UGCRefer to following portion of the <a href="http://ugc-net-history.blogspot.com/2005/03/syllabus-ugc-net-history.html">UGC History Syllabus</a>:<br />5.1 World History: Concepts, ideas and terms<br />5.1.1. Script<br />5.1.2. Life after death<br />5.1.3. Mother Goddess<br />5.1.4. Law codes<br />5.1.5. Athenian Democracy<br />5.1.6. Roman republic<br />5.1.7. Slavery in Ancient World.<br />5.1.8. Aristocracy<br />5.1.9. Confucianism<br />5.2<br /><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">5.2.1. Feudalism</span></strong><br />5.2.2. Humanism<br />5.2.3. Enlightened Despotism<br />5.2.4. Divine Right<br />5.2.5. Supremacy of Church<br />5.2.6. Holy Roman Empire<br />5.2.7. Social Contract and General Will<br />5.2.8. Nation States<br />5.2.9. Renaissance<br />5.2.10. Reformation<br /><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;"><strong>Kindly find the following relevant articles on sumir-history.blogspot.com</strong></span>.<br /><br />A highly elaborate study of Feudalism as desired in history is undertaken at <a href="http://www.friesian.com/perifran.htm">Successors of Rome: The Periphery of Francia, 445 to Present</a>. It contains detailed study of the kings substantiated by maps, family trees and other supporting material. It is brief study of the history of different European countries.On the definition of Feudalism just read the following lines:"This term is derived from the Old Aryan pe'ku, hence Sanskrit pacu, "cattle"; so also Lat. pecus (cf. pecunia); Old High German fehu, fihu, "cattle", "property", "money"; Old Frisian fia; Old Saxon fehu; Old English feoh, fioh, feo, fee. It is an indefinable word for it represents the progressive development of European organization during seven centuries.<br /><br />I never knew that the word has Indian connection. The detailed article is at <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06058c.htm">Feudalism</a>. It is based on the work of different historians. It is written by BEDE JARRETT and Thomas Crossett on the net as a part of The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VI.<br /><br />The Link to the posting is <strong><a href="http://sumir-history.blogspot.com/2005/08/feudalism-study-in-detail.html">Feudalism: A Study in Detail</a></strong>.Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1120403611470406242005-07-03T08:06:00.000-07:002005-07-03T08:13:34.546-07:00Sufism and Bhaktism in India<div align="justify"><br />At the following posting titled <a href="http://edrees.blogspot.com/2005/07/sufism-in-india.html"><span style="font-size:130%;color:#ff0000;"><strong>Sufism in India</strong></span></a>, there is a good article on Sufism in India. All the basic features and tenets are rightly described. The major four orders (silsilas) are rightly mentioned.<br><br />It further describes the relation with Bhaktism.<br><br />It has right described the Advitya Advaitvada of Ramanuja which forms the core and the basic tenet of Bhaktism in India. Ramanuja and seventeen major saints of Bhakti based their basic theory on Advitya Advaitvada or qualified dualism. The soul of man has a separate existence and also it is part of the Paramatma or the Supreme soul. Ramanuja had stressed upon the path of total Bhakti as the right part to the seek salvation for joining back with the Supreme Soul. However, the final decision of joining with the Supreme Soul rests with the Supreme Soul. This was the main message of Bhaktism which fulfilled the social needs of the time. Ramanuja had not denied the path knowledge as suggested by Shankaracharya. Shankaracharya had identified the soul with the Supreme soul. But Ramanuja had identified the separate existence of the soul of man apart from being the part of the Supreme Soul. This was the basic difference. The second major difference was that Shankaracharya supported the path of Knowledge and intuition with the grace of Supreme soul as path for final salvation. However, Ramanuja had full faith in Bhakti Marga and the grace of Supreme soul as the surety of salvation. Such a doctrine was right answer to unsettled political condition of the time, the upheaval of social setup and disruptive economic situation which prevailed between 1000 A. D. to 1500 A. D.<br><br /><br />Guru Nanak and Vallabharcharya added next dimension to the Bhakti Marg by giving the doctrine of Guruship and grace of Guru as the surety of salvation.<br><br />The write up, suggested above in the link, has well described the main features of Sufism and its relation with Bhaktism. There is slight shortcoming in form of lack of historic explanation. It is mere elaboration. However, on whole, the write up can help in preparing part B, of Paper I History for Mains. This question has been asked in short answers compulsory question. If anyone has prepared his note on Bhaktism in India, he will definitely find it refreshing and source of substantiating his notes.<br />The students of UGC NET History should include it in most important notes for the subjective paper.<br><br /><br />The other good sources on writing short notes on Bhaktism and Sufism is Guru Nanak and His Times by J. S. Garewal. There is complete note on it which may not require any improvement. The second good source is Rizvi’s Wonder That War India. However, the major authority is definitely Habibullah.<br /><br><br />Do read the suggestive link and give comments.</div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1119428901855440672005-06-22T01:19:00.000-07:002005-06-22T01:28:22.266-07:00Assisting ToolsGetting the right information in the less possible time is highly desired and wished by all of us.<br /><br /><br />Writing and revision can be useful if you know that there is assistance at hand which can help you to improve the contents and counter check the facts as being presented by you.<br /><br /><br />The above mentioned needs and which is my aim of developing my blogs for my own study as well as for my students in my college where I teach, I feel like sharing the following two resources. I have been using one of the resource for correcting my answer to GS papers of 2005 and used it to give more details on the questions which I will soon post on this blog.<br /><br /><br /><strong><span style="color:#ffcc99;">The Fist Resource:</span></strong><br />It is a new search engine which I have found different from other search engines. No doubt, my preferred search engine is still Google and second in preference is Yahoo which seems to have improved in last six to seven months.<br /><br />The search Engine is <a href="http://www.brainboost.com/">Brain Boost</a>.<br /><br /><br /><strong><span style="color:#ff9900;">The Second Resource:</span></strong><br />The second important is a web site which can be used as a source. My source is actually CIA world Fact books. There are many questions on foreign countries in recent GS paper. I was in the process of collecting material when Siddharta Tripathi identified my mistakes. Hence, it required immediate attention and counter confirmation. I depended on this every source which I have mentioned. However, the web site which I am now suggesting claims to use three different sources. I have placed an article on my other blog about it. However, I give links to both these things below.<br /><br /><br />A. <a href="http://www.theodora.com/wfb">The Web Site</a>: the open link is as follows:<br /><a href="http://www.theodora.com/wfb">www.theodora.com/wfb</a><br /><br />B. My article:<br /><a href="http://sumir-history.blogspot.com/2005/06/resource-on-facts-no1.html">Resource on Facts No.1</a><br /><br /><br /><strong><span style="color:#999999;">An Apology:<br /></span></strong>I am not able to post regularly because of disruptive and erratic electric supply. One really wonders that what will happen if our country does not improve the infrastructure. One should not rue the brain drain if such a scenario continue. One should not blame those who leave the country. I feel amused when I find sensex crossing 7000 on BSE and 2150 on NSE and claims of having 6.7 GDP this time.<br /><br /><br />Secondly I was not able post the required number of details due to many reasons. The examination is going be held on June 26, 2005. I am going to regularize my postings here only after that. I will start with Philosophy of History and Research Methodology first. I will also post short notes. I will post them only in English. But the major portion of the notes will covered in my M. A. Blog. There are numerous posting in Civil Service Blog which are meaningful for this blog also. I will be posting a substantial part of Indian History in that Blog because I am implimenting a particular idea on that blog. That way of writing has been received well. I will continue it there.<br /><br /><br />New addition:<br /><a href="http://www.sumirhindimain.blogspot.com/"><strong><span style="color:#ff9900;">Sumir Hindi Main</span></strong></a><br />However, it has nothing to with competitive examinations. It is on trial basis. The aim is to use Hindi language as a means of communication in this media.Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1111522285398084722005-03-22T12:00:00.000-08:002005-03-23T20:11:29.916-08:00ICT in GS of NET - UGC/CSIR examination.<div align="justify"><span style="color:#ff0000;">There is a topic in GS on ICT in UGC NET General Studies Paper. It is meant for candidates from all the subjects.</span> </div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#ff9900;">I understand (I may be wrong.) that there are many applicants who would learn about this ICT for the first time. It has been mentioned on UGC web site and good explanation can be derived from there by learning about the ways through which UGC intend to introduce ICT in India.</span> </div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#009900;">The ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology. What I understand from the information provided on the UGC site, this concept has been placed on the list of aims of UGC just two or three years back. It is a very important and pertinent goal. Through Edusat, GyanDarshan Vyas etc and related activities in cooperation with </span><a href="http://www.ugc.ac.in/new_initiatives/vyas.html"><span style="color:#009900;">IGNOU</span></a><span style="color:#009900;">, UGC intends to spread it to whole of the Higher Education system of India. In the field of science and technology it is already well placed and in operation. But, in field of social sciences, I do not find any indication of it being observed and recognized by the respective fields of intellectuals.</span> </div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#ff6666;">In short, ICT aims at using computer based technology for the promotion of education and research. It involves the use of multimedia (interactive programmes on computers and Internet for the benefit of students right from school level to higher education level) and Internet (email, discussion forums, etc all included) for education purpose. In Europe, this had started long back. In my humble study, I have found that they had started it somewhere in latter 80s of twentieth century. <strong>If I talk about Hot Potatoes, Webquest, ICT4U projects, I am sure that many stalwarts in the field of education would show total ignorance about it. There, they are already deep into it.</strong></span><strong><br /></strong></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"> </div><div align="justify"> </div><div align="justify"> </div><div align="justify"><span style="color:#cc9933;">It is not that ICT is something new in India or new to India. It is rather opposite to it. India has been one of the forefront countries which took to ICT. However, it was first appreciated and exploited by business field and big companies. It had started in early nineties in the twentieth century. The companies like Infosys, Wipro, TCS, HCL, CMC were Indian companies which came up with required software to make ICT useful for the users. No doubt, many of the popular Banking and accounting software are of Indian origin and they aim at making ICT useful for the organization for overall benefit of all the concerned entities. The Banking industry took to it in big way and after payment or e-commerce had established the right models in its places, the benefits of ICT were fully appreciated and realized. One of the leading FMCG company (HLL) had absorbed it in day to day working to such a level that its sales team and production decision are synchronized in real time through ICT. There are now numerous companies, which uses Intranet and Internet as part of their normal activity. The Honourable President of India A P J Abdul Kalam is popular for using ICT in remaining in touch with his research scholars with whom he was associated before entering Rashtrapati Bhawan. Hence, ICT is something which is already with India and in India. However, it is not fully used and absorbed at school, college and university level. They are not using it for dispersing of knowledge, remaining in communication which only ICT can afford to do for them and exploiting it for increasing knowledge and understanding in their field. It has not been used in the field of Literature and social sciences. </span></div><div align="justify"> </div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#000000;">For the benefit of inquisitive mind to learn about ICT on their own and to develop independent understanding of the main motive and vision of such a project I would suggest this site</span> <a href="http://educationforum.ipbhost.com/"><span style="font-size:180%;color:#999999;">here</span></a>. <span style="color:#330033;">They should read different articles on E-Help, E-Project, and related sites in such folders of this site. </span></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#339999;">After developing some impression by studying the above site, they may explore the</span> <a href="http://www.ugc.ac.in/"><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>UGC</strong></span></a> <span style="color:#339999;">site in order to learn that how it is being envisaged in India. They should then explore</span> <a href="http://www.cec-ugc.org/home.htm"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">An Inter University Centre of the UGC</span></strong></a><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">.</span></strong><br /></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#6633ff;"><strong>However, if they are not able to make much out of above suggestion, they should not fear much and get worried about it. They need to learn only basic things about the use of computers, useful software required for making use of computer for their field of activity and subject and basic use of Internet (especially various use of various search engines etc, important institutions where there is communication on the latest research being carried out along with email postings in order to bring the intellectual world nearer to each other. Best example can be H-NET). They may get only four to five MCQ on it on the whole. Some basic knowledge of computers and internet will be enough to answer those question. However, there will be nothing bad, if they are able to develop some deeper understanding of it. </strong></span></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"><br /><span style="color:#6666cc;">My Blog making and the contents therein are basically an attempt at using ICT for education.</span> <span style="font-size:180%;color:#9999ff;"><strong>Do You Find It Like That!!!</strong></span></div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1110731484620884662005-03-13T08:23:00.000-08:002015-05-19T23:36:29.605-07:00Books for UGC preparation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #999999;">First of all a general talk</span>:</div>
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<span style="color: #cc66cc;">Year 1996: A person claimed to have used following set of books for clearing the NET.<br />In those days, you could easily skip preparing the World History section and concentrate wholly on Indian History.</span> </div>
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<span style="color: #6633ff;">For Indian History he used B. A. course books by A. C. Arora written in Hindi and Kundra Bawa of Neelam Publication (now they are being reprinted in new form and do not appear with the contents as they appeared till 1990.)</span> </div>
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<span style="color: #3366ff;">For General Studies, He based his preparation wholly on Swaran B.Ed entrance guide. (I am personally strongly against the books published by this Publication of Patiala because the contents are really "outrageous".)</span> </div>
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<span style="color: #009900;">For research methods, he only depended on Research Methodology notes which he had studied for his B.Ed before joining post graduation of history. He did not studied any thing about the Philosophy of History.</span> </div>
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<span style="color: #cc9933;">He further claimed that he first stressed upon developing complete understanding of political history and then stressed upon the social and economic history aspect.</span> </div>
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<span style="color: #cc6600;">Could it have been possible? Yes, I assure you that it could have been possible. However, in the new paper structure, you can not be that selective. You have to attempt one question in Paper III and four questions in Paper II from all the sections. Therefore, it is not easy to skip any portion.</span> </div>
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<span style="color: #990000;">(A personal note: When I cleared UGC, I did not attempt any question on the World History. At that time, I was equally comfortable with eighteenth and nineteenth century European history. However, I attempted questions only from Indian history.)</span><br />
Regardless of the above talk My selection of books are as follows: </div>
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<b><span style="color: #ff6666;">Ancient Indian History:</span>Wonder That Was India by A. L. Basham.<br />Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Dr. S. Sen.<br />Cultural History of India by B. N. Luniya (Regardless of the diction and numerous spelling and other types of mistakes.)</b><br />
<b><span style="color: #ff6666;">Medieval History:</span></b><br />
<b>My basic book during my graduation was two volumes on Medieval History by A. L. Srivastva. It has been republished without any change.<br />However, I will strongly recommend Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India by J. L. Mehta (three volumes; The third volume is just the repetition of what has been said in the first two volumes, even then, it is good to read it in its compiled form. It saves time.)<br />Kundra and Bawa of pre 1990. Yes, I mean it. In the new pattern of Paper III, there is going to be a write up on which there will be questions. You can not read all the authorities. Kundra Bawa, when alive had written books giving extensive quotations at appropriate place. Those quotation will help to identify any small essay that could be asked from some authoritative book. It is with the same idea that J. L. Mehta is recommended. </b></div>
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<b><span style="color: red;">For Modern India:</span></b> </div>
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<b>Bipin Chandra and four authors, Freedom Struggle of India.<br />Modern India by Sumit Sarkar.<br />The earlier N.C.E.R.T. book. (Not the present one by S. C. Mittal. I have full regards for him but his work is not up to the requirement. Rather refer to a link which I have suggested for period 1885 to 1947. The contents itself will speak for themselves.)</b></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><b>For Philosophy of History.</b></span></div>
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<b>Well there will be no need to fully prepare it now but I will strongly recommend B. Sheik Ali Philosophy of History and Methodology.</b></div>
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<span style="color: #3333ff;">Apart from these books, One must prepare political history from the beginning to end. A candidate should be able to give the major history topics and events from 3000 B. C. to 1947 without interruption. The above set of books will help you to write and prepare for the finer questions except a small portion of the syllabus suggested by the commission. But, you can only develop confidence and make good preparation if you are able to recollect whole of Indian history without interruption. For example.</span> </div>
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<span style="color: #cc66cc;">You should will be able to tell that After there Ghori, their was Aibak 1205, Ittumish, 1235, Razia 1237, Badrudin, Nizamudin, Balaban, Jalaludin, Alauddin, Giasudin etc upto to Lodhi dynasty. Then from Babar to at least upto to Mohammad Shah till 1747. </span></div>
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<span style="color: #3333ff;">Similarly, all the major happeinings of Gandhi period should be recollected without any flaw from 1915 to 1948.<br />For this, I strongly recommend the Agnihotri’s book for Prelims in its new form. You just keep it by your side.<br />In addition to that all the three volumes of V. D. Mahajan now being republished by S. Chand and Co. He had the knack for giving long quotations. This would help you a lot. Secondly, it is still a very good reference book. You find something on every topic in his books. In case of Sangam literature, I think instead of reading Nilkant Shastri, remain confine to his chapter in the latest edition. That is enough. </span></div>
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<b>In case of other options which are quite famous, I feel that the IGNOU notes are the best options. They are amazing. </b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #cc66cc;">The next write up will be General studies. From March 17 onwards, the detailed notes will be posted.</span></b></div>
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Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1110612797196366982005-03-11T23:30:00.000-08:002005-03-11T23:40:41.483-08:00Syllabus of UGC Net from the website of UGC<div align="justify"><span style="color:#ff6666;">Here is the link from where you can directly download the syllabus of any subject (total 93 in numbers including langauges). Kindly note that all syllabus are in Acrobat PDF format require Acrobat reader to open.<br /></span><br /><a href="http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/syllabus.html"><strong><span style="font-size:180%;color:#ff6666;">Click Here</span></strong></a></div>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-11021741.post-1110610158797953542005-03-11T22:30:00.000-08:002005-10-27T06:45:54.216-07:00Syllabus UGC NET History<strong><span style="color:#ff6666;">Important Note</span></strong>: <span style="color:#ff9966;"><em>This following syllabus is of 2002 June. The contents of the syllabus is same but there is change in the allocation of topics and sections of examination. The candidate has to prepare on the topics for subjective as well as objective i.e. Paper II and Paper III, which remain same.</em></span><br /><br /><span style="color:#ff9900;"><em>The details, elboration and questions have been formed on the basis of the contents of this syllabus. They are valid for the present/Latest syllabus also.</em></span><br /><br /><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">The syllabus 2002 follows</span></strong>:<br /><div align="center"><br /><strong><span style="color:#3366ff;">INDIAN HISTORY</span></strong></div><div align="center"><br /><span style="color:#ff99ff;"><strong>1.1 Concepts, Ideas and Terms</strong><br /></span></div><span style="color:#cc33cc;"><a href="http://ugc-net-history.blogspot.com/2005/10/bharatvarsha.html"><strong>Bharatavarsha</strong></a><br />Pre-history<br /><a href="http://ugc-net-history.blogspot.com/2005/10/samskaras.html"><strong>Samskaras</strong></a><br />Dandaniti<br />Agraharas<br />Purusharthas<br />Saptanga<br />Shadbhaga<br />Digvijaya<br />Varnashrama<br />Stupa<br />Alvars/Nayanars<br />Sreni<br />Mudra<br />Sangam Age.<br />Sallekhana<br />Viragal (Hero-stone)<br />Sabha Samiti<br />Dhammavijaya<br />Vishti<br /></span><br />1.2<br /><span style="color:#cc66cc;">Khutba<br />Khilafat<br />Sulh-I-kul<br />Din-I-Illahi<br />Ghatika<br />Tasawwuf<br />Maharashtra dharma<br />Langar<br />Nishan<br />Turkan-I-Chahlghani<br />Watan<br />Baluta<br />Iqta<br />Jizyah<br />Madad-I-maash<br />Amaram<br />Raya-Rekho<br />Jangama<br />Chauth<br />Bhai-bant<br /></span><br />1.3<br /><span style="color:#cc66cc;">Mercantilism<br />Economic Nationalism<br />Indian Renaissance<br />Economic Drain<br />Colonialism<br />Paramountcy<br />Dyarchy<br />Federalism<br />Utilitarianism<br />Filtration Theory<br />Forward Policy<br />Doctrine of Lapse<br />Satyagraha<br />Leftism<br />Swadeshi<br />Casteism<br />Industrialisation<br />Modernisation<br />Revivalism<br />Communalism</span><br /><p><span style="color:#cc66cc;"></span></p><p><span style="color:#cc66cc;"></span></p><span style="color:#cc66cc;"><p align="center"><br /><strong>Ancient Indian History</strong><br /></p><p><strong>2.1 Sources<br /></strong>2.1.1 Archaeological sources: exploration, excavation, Epigraphy, numismatics, monuments<br /><strong>2.1.2 Literary sources</strong>:<br />Indigenous: Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain literature, Kavya literature, Historical Kavyas, Scientific literature, Literature in regional languages.<br />Foreign Accounts: Greek, Chinese and Arab writers.<br /><strong>2.2 Pre-history and Proto-history<br /></strong>2.2.1 Stone age cultures of India: Paleolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age cultures.<br />2.2.2. Indus Valley Civilization: Origin, date, extent, Characteristics , contents, decline and survivals.<br /><strong>2.3 Vedic Period<br /></strong>Migrations and settlements, date of the Rigveda, literary and archaeological evidences, evolution of social and political institutions, religious and philosophical ideas and practices, literature.<br /><strong>2.4 Period of Mahajanapadas<br /></strong>Sixteen Mahajanapadas, Republican States, rise of urban centers, trade routes and economic growth, introduction of currency, origin and spread of Jainism and Buddhism, rise of Magadha, Iranian and Mecedonean Invasions.<br /><strong>2.5 Mauryan Empire</strong><br />Foundation of the Mauryan Empire, Kautilya and the Arthashastra, Ashoka, concept of Dhamma, Edicts, Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, administration, economy, art, disintegration of the empire, Sungas and Kanvas.<br /><strong>2.6 Post-Mauryan and Kushana Period</strong><br />Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Western Kahatrapas, contact with outside world, growth of urban centres, economy, coinage, development of religions, Mahayana sect, social conditions, art and architecture, literature and science.<br /><strong>2.7 Early States in Eastern India, Deccan and South India<br /></strong>Kharavela, The Satavahanas, Tamil States of the Sangam Age; economy, land grants and coinage, trade guilds, urbanization, Buddhist centres, Sangam literature, administration, art and architecture.<br /><strong>2.8. The Regional States<br /></strong>2.8.1. The Guptas and Vakatakas, Harsha: administration, Sanskrit literature, scientific literature, economic conditions, coinage of the Guptas, Varnashrama dharma, castes and sub-castes, position of women, education and educational institutions, contact with neighbouring countries, central Asia, South-east Asia and China, art and architecture.<br />2.8.2. The Kadambas, Gangas, Pallavas and the Chalukyas of Badami; administration, role of feudatory families, trade guilds, literature, growth of regional languages and scripts, growth of Vaishnava and Saiva religions. Tamil Bhakti Movement, Institutions of temple and temple architecture.<br />2.9 The Rashtrakutas Prathiharas, Palas and Senas, Kalachuri-Chedis, Paramaras, Chahamanas, Chalukyas of Gujarat: Arab contacts, advent of the Turks, regional schools of architecture, religious sects and social conditions.<br />2.10 The Chalukyas of Kalyana, Hoysalas, Cholas, Pandyas, Administration and local Government, growth of art and architecture, religious sects, Institutions of temples, and Mathas, Agraharas and Brahmadeyas, education and literature; economy and society; contact with Sri Lanka and South-east Asia. </p><br /><br /><div align="center"><br />MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY</div><div align="center"><br /><strong>3.1 Sources</strong><br />3.1.1. Archaeological, epigraphic and numismatic materials and monuments.<br />3.1.2. Chronicles<br />3.1.3. Literary Sources: Persian, Sanskrit and regional languages.<br />3.1.4. Archival materials.<br />3.1.5. Foreign travellers accounts<br /><strong><span style="color:#ff6666;">3.2 Political Developments</span></strong><br />3.2.1. The Sultanate : the Ghorids, the Turks, the Khaljis (<a href="http://undergraduatehistory.blogspot.com/2005/07/khaljis-1290-1320.html">Q&A 1</a>), the Tughlaqas, the Sayyids and the Lodhis.<br />3.2.2. Foundation of the Mughal Empire: Babur, Humanyun and the Suris: expansion from Akbar to Aruangzeb<br />3.2.3. Decline of the Mughal empire: Political, administrative and economic causes.<br />3.2.4. Later Mughals and disintegration of the Mughal Empire.<br />3.2.5. The Vijayanagara and the Bahmanis: rise, expansion and disintegration.<br />3.2.6. The Maratha Movement: the foundation of Swaraj by Shivaji; its expansion under the Peshwas; Maratha Confederacy; causes of decline.<br /><span style="color:#ff0000;"><strong>3.3 Administration</strong></span><br />3.3.1. Administration under the Sultanate: civil, judicial, revenue, fiscal and military.<br />3.3.2. Sher Shah’s administrative reforms: Mughal administration: Land revenue and other sources of income; mansabdari and jagirdari<br />3.3.3. Administration system in the Deccan: the Vijayanagara, the Bahamanis and the Marathas; Malik Ambar’s revenue system.<br /><strong><span style="color:#ff0000;">3.4. Economic Aspects</span></strong><br />3.4.1. Agricultural production: village economy: peasantry<br />3.4.2. Urbanisation: Urban centres and population<br />3.4.3. Industries: cotton textiles, handicrafts, agro-based industries; organisation, Karkhanas, technology.<br />3.4.4. Trade and Commerce: state policies, internal and external trade; European trade, trade centres and ports, transport and communication.<br />3.4.5. Financing trade, commerce and industries; Hundi and Insurance.<br />3.4.6. Currency<br /><strong><span style="color:#ff0000;">3.5. Socio-Religious Movements:<br /></span></strong>3.5.1. The Sufis: their orders, beliefs and practices, the leading Sufi Saints.<br />3.5.2. Bhakti cult: Shaivism and its branches: Vaishnavism and its branches.<br />3.5.3. The Saints of the medieval period: north and south; their impact on socio-political and religious life.<br />3.5.4. The Sikh movement: Guru Nanak Dev and his teachings and practices; Adi Granth; the Khalsa.<br /><strong><span style="color:#ff6600;">3.6. Society</span></strong><br />3.6.1. Classification: ruling class, major religious groups, the mercantile and professional classes.<br />3.6.2. Rural society: petty chieftains, village officials, cultivators and non-cultivating classes, artisans<br />3.6.3. Position of women<br /><strong><span style="color:#ff0000;">3.7 Cultural life<br /></span></strong>3.7.1. Educational system and its motivations.<br />3.7.2. Literature: Persian, Sanskrit and Regional Languages.<br />3.7.3. Fine arts: major schools of painting; music.<br />3.7.4. Architectural development of the North and South India: Indo-Islamic architecture. </div><div align="center"></div><div align="center"></div><div align="center"><br /><strong>MODERN INDIAN HISTORY</strong></div><strong></strong><div align="justify"><br /><strong><span style="color:#ff99ff;">4.1 Sources<br /></span></strong>4.1.1. Archival materials, biographies and memoirs, newspapers and oral histories.<br />4.1.2. European traders in India in the 17th and 18th centuries: Portuguese, Dutch, French and the British.<br />4.1.3. The establishment, expansion and consolidation of British rule in India.<br />4.1.4. British relations with principal Indian powers: Bengal, Oudh, Nizam, Mysore, Marathas and Sikhs<br /><strong>4.2. Foreign Relations and Frontier Policy</strong><br />4.2.1. Relations with Afghanistan and Persia<br />4.2.2. Relations with Burma<br />4.2.3. Relations with Nepal and Tibet<br /><strong>4.3. Administration under the East India Company and the Crown</strong><br />4.3.1. Central and provincial administration under the East India Company and the Crown<br />4.3.2. Development of local self-government<br />4.3.3. Constitutional development since 1773<br /><strong>4.4. Economic Development and Policy</strong><br />4.4.1. Trade and Commerce<br />4.4.2. Agricultural development and policy, land revenue administration, land tenures (Permanent Settlement, Roytwari, Mahalwari, Taluqdari and Malguzari Settlements) – Rural indebtedness.<br />4.4.3. Decline of indigenous industries.<br />4.4.4. Famines and famine policy<br />4.4.5. Industrial development and policy, labour and trade union movements.<br />4.4.6. Monetary policy – banking and currency<br />4.4.7. Growth of towns and cities.<br /><strong>4.5. Social Policy and Social Changes</strong><br />4.5.1. Impact of British rule on Indian society, emergence of the middle class, caste movements.<br />4.5.2. Educational development and policy<br />4.5.3. Socio-religious reforms, emancipation of women<br />4.5.4. Press and public opinion<br />4.5.5. Western impact on Indian culture, literature, art, music and performing arts.<br /><strong>4.6. National Movement<br /></strong>4.6.1. Rise of Indian nationalism, social economic bases of nationalism<br />4.6.2. Revolt of 1857, civil rebellions, tribal movements.<br />4.6.3. Indian National Congress, ideologies, programmes<br />4.6.4. Moderates, extremists, revolutionaries in India and abroad.<br />4.6.5. Peasant movements<br />4.6.6. The Gandhian era, 1920-47<br />4.6.7. Genesis of Pakistan<br />4.6.8. Integration of Indian states<br />4.6.9. Constitution of India, 1950. </div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="center"><br /><strong>5.1 World History: Concepts, ideas and terms<br /></strong>5.1.1. Script<br />5.1.2. Life after death<br />5.1.3. Mother Goddess<br />5.1.4. Law codes<br />5.1.5. Athenian Democracy<br />5.1.6. Roman republic<br />5.1.7. Slavery in Ancient World.<br />5.1.8. Aristocracy<br />5.1.9. Confucianism<br /><strong>5.2<br /></strong>5.2.1. Feudalism<br />5.2.2. Humanism<br />5.2.3. Enlightened Despotism<br />5.2.4. Divine Right<br />5.2.5. Supremacy of Church<br />5.2.6. Holy Roman Empire<br />5.2.7. Social Contract and General Will<br />5.2.8. Nation States<br />5.2.9. Renaissance<br />5.2.10. Reformation<br /><strong>5.3.</strong><br />5.3.1. Non-alignment<br />5.3.2. Parliamentary Democracy<br />5.3.3. Totalitarianism<br />5.3.4. Commonwealth<br />5.3.5. White Man’s Burden<br />5.3.6. Socialism<br />5.3.7. Sphere of Influence<br />5.3.8. Racism<br />5.3.9. Rights of Man<br />5.3.10. International Peace<br />5.3.11. Nationalism</div><div align="center"></div><div align="justify"><br /><strong>6.1 Research in History</strong><br />6.1.1. Scope and purpose of History<br />6.1.2. Objectivity and bias in History<br />6.1.3. History and its ancillary sciences<br /><strong>6.2</strong><br />6.2.1. Areas of research-proposed<br />6.2.2. Sources – Primary/secondary in the proposed area of research<br />6.2.3. Modern Historical Writing in his/her area research. </div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify">The Forthcoming Material: </div><div align="justify">In the next article which will be appear on March 14, 2005, I will discuss the source material which can be used to prepare the above syllabus. </div><div align="justify"></div><div align="justify">From then onwards, a detailed note on selective topics will appear regularly. Kindly remain in touch. Wish you Good Luck.<br /></div></span>Sumir Sharmahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15597734437144922132noreply@blogger.com0